One is surprised to read in the first two reviews that James's pragmatism is a justification for relativism, nihilism, and even despotic tyranny. This evaluation comes from interpreting James in terms of utilitarianism, rather than understanding what he means by practical consequences. One will hear James claim in _Pragmatism_ that, "I am accustomed to put questions to my classes in this way: In what respects would the world be different if this alternative or that were true? If I can find nothing that would become different, then the alternative has no sense." The pragmatic maxim does not invite us to accept the most expedient point of view for the purpose of utility, but instead invites us to return to the world and experience in evaluating the nature of concepts. Thus, to adopt an example from Peirce, an application of the pragmatic maxim to a concept such as "salt" would lead us to look at the practical consequences of this concept for real world experience such as its hardness, seasoning capabilities, chemical nature, ability to combine with other elements, etc.. In other words, pragmatism, as James agrees, is also an empiricism. Given this, an application of the pragmatic maxim to the political concepts of democracy and fascism would indeed lead us to discern vast differences between the two doctrines and to ultimately reject the former by virtue of its practical consequences. In final analysis, _Pragmatism_ is a curative of philosophical abstractions which would ask us to turn away from empty first principles to see what difference those principles actually make in our actions and lives. Such an approach to philosophy would surely have the effect of clearing away much useless debate and of broadening our appreciation of difference and inquiry. As James says later in the book, "There can be no difference anywhere that doesn't make a difference elsewhere-- no difference in abstract truth that doesn't express itself in a difference in concrete fact and conduct consequent upon that fact, imposed on somebody, somehow, somewhere and somewhen. The whole function of philosophy ought to be to find out what definite difference it will make to you and me, at definite instants of our life, if this world-formula or that world-formula be the true one." Such a philosophy is truly timely in our increasingly multicultural age. The operative principle of pragmatism is not utilitarianism which can often be cold, cruel and heartless, but rather verification that demands of us that we return to experience to determine the difference that a conceptual difference makes. This book is an absolute must read for anyone interested in overcoming the abstractness of empty transcendental philosophies and who wish to see philosophy in its throbbing relavance for the life of action, ethics, and politics. In this respect, James stands shoulder to shoulder with the uncompromising and liberating philosophies of figures like Spinoza, Nietzsche, Bergson, Dewey, and Peirce.
