Paganism, Kirsch reminds us, has been far distorted beyond its original meaning. Even our common dictionaries use only pejorative words to describe it - "heathen", "hedonist", "non-religious". Kirsch wants us to understand that "no self-respecting pagan" would apply such definitions to his own forms of worship. "Paganism" has been the subject of harsh propaganda by the monotheistic "faithful". These agents of repression viewed worship of deities other than the "One True God" as just cause for the vilest forms of curtailment, cruelty and murder. Although we've suffered many centuries of Christian propaganda against the "pagans", Kirsch is able to sift through the evidence to provide a more reasonable picture. The pagan world had its blemishes, but in his view, there's no match for the destructive record of Christianity.
Kirsch's opening subject may surprise most readers. He examines the effort of Egyptian pharaoh Akehnaton to establish a monotheistic faith. Akhenaton's project was to replace the pantheon of Egyptian deities with a "One True God" in the figure of Aton, the sun god. Given Egypt's environment, it was a logical choice. In true monotheistic style, one that would be followed by other monotheists, Akhenaton destroyed the images, references and temples of the previous corps of deities. Naturally, there was resentment among the populace, but a pharaoh's power was too absolute for a successful counterrevolution. Although unsuccessful in establishing a lasting monotheistic empire, Akehnaton is recorded as the first ruler to make the attempt.
The next attempt was the half-hearted endeavour by the Roman Emperor Constantine. Kirsch closely examines the myth of Constantine's "vision" at the battle of Milvian bridge and the emperor's actions after the victory. Remaining unbaptised until shortly before his death, Constantine is shown as using Christianity to enhance his own power as a ruler. Skillfully playing many factions like political pawns, Constantine was able to keep himself aloof from religious strife. As Kirsch notes, more Christians killed each other than were lost during the "Persecutions" of previous emperors. Christianity bogged down over the "essence" of its founder. The "important dipthong" of Edward Gibbon became the basis for innumerable slaughters, burnings and suppression of dissenting views. It was a portent with continuous repetition. Adolph Hitler's motto of "Ein Volk, Ein Reich, Ein Fuerher" was presaged by Constatine's "One God, One Empire, One Emperor".
Almost in response to Constatine's vague conversion was the career of his nephew, Julian. Kirsch explains how Julian, a survival of the slayings of his relatives as Christian pretender challenged his Christian rivals, was raised in exile. In his training, he encountered classical philosophers. With the "heresy wars" besetting his times, Julian looked with longing at the domestic peace of paganism. The empire might have contended with competitors or "barbarians", but its population remained peaceful over religious issues. Kirsch shows how Julian developed a longing for those days of toleration in the midst of sectarian strife.
At his accession to "the purple", Julian attempted the reverse of Akhenaton's career. Instead of monotheism and "One True God", Julian attempted to restore the traditional deities and reduce the violence of Christian orthodox and "heretical" contenders. It was a formidable task. Kirsch notes that by the time of Juilan's accession there were over 150 sects professing to know "the truth". Such absolutism was unlikely to lead to a reign of tolerance. Julian's only hope was to show that paganism could restore peace, but the Christians were launched on an all-or-nothing struggle for dominance. Regrettably, Julian's restoration of rationality was cut short by a Persian spear in his liver. Inevitably, Kirsch ponders what the history of Europe might have been if Julian had been granted the three decades allotted to Constantine by the Fates. What Kirsch cannot do is more than hope that books such as his might someday lead to the restoration of reason. [stephen a. haines - Ottawa, Canada]
